before. But was it good enough?
This year for Valentine's Day, I got George the book "Diagramming Step by Step, One Hundred and Fifty-Five Steps to Excellence in Sentence Diagramming" by Eugene Moutoux. I know, I know, I was excited too. So excited, in fact, that I gave it to him for Lunar New Year instead of Valentine's Day because I couldn't wait. There are 24 chapters to take notes on, and my notes may be more or less in the form of plagiarism because I can't necessarily word this stuff more efficiently than Moutoux. If poring over the book and my notes isn't the definition of great couples time, I don't know what is. Not to brag, but I got this romance thing down.
- noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause about which the sentence says or asks something
- independent clause that begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation point
Be consistent with verb tenses when writing.
, the verb should match the noun closest to the verb.
take plural verbs.
is used in reference to a singular noun, use a singular verb.
is used in reference to a plural noun, grammarians disagree.
3) Imperatives, Vocatives, Contractions, and Coordinating Conjunctions
Imperative mood - expresses commands, requests, or suggestions
Imperatives can be expressed either by using the infinitive form (love), or with the word do before the infinitive (do love).
The subject of an imperative sentence is often an unexpressed you.
Vocative - noun or pronoun used in direct address
Vocatives are not connected grammatically to the rest of the sentence.
Contraction - word formed by joining two words and replacing omitted letters by an apostrophe
Coordinating conjunction - connects words, phrases, and clauses of equal importance
Coordinating conjunctions almost always connect nouns with nouns and verbs with verbs, etc.
Principal coordinating conjunctions - and, but, or, nor
Correlative coordinating conjunctions - both/and, either/or, neither/nor
Once two items are connected by coordinating conjunctions, they are said to be compound.
For example, "compound" can describe nouns, adverbs, clauses, prepositional phrases, and sentences.
Traditionally, vocatives are set apart with commas before and after if possible.
Commas are used to set off individual parts of addresses, but not between address number and street or state and zip code.
The format Feb 14, 2016, requires commas, but 14 Feb 2016 does not.
Compound sentences normally take a comma before the coordinating conjunction joining the clauses, but this comma can be omitted in clear, short compound sentences.
The Oxford comma is the comma before the and/or joining the last two elements of a series; use it.
Serial semicolons should be used to separate comma-laden elements of a series.
4) Articles, Attributive Adjectives, and Direct Objects
Indefinite articles - a, an
Definite article - the
Attributive adjective - adjective that precedes or comes immediately after the noun/pronoun it modifies
Predicate adjective - adjective or equivalent expression that follows a linking verb and refers to the subject
Predicate nominative - substantative that follows a linking verb and refers to the subject
Substantative - noun or noun substitute, such as a pronoun, adjective, phrase, or clause
Direct object - direct recipient of the action of a transitive verb
Transitive verb - verb that needs a direct object for completion
Intransitive verb - verb that does not need a direct object
Linking verb - intransitive verb that requires a predicate nominative or a predicate adjective for completion
Many verbs are both transitive and intransitive according to their meanings.
Subjective pronouns - I, he, she, we, and they
Objective pronouns - me, him, her, us, and them
When two or more attributive adjectives precede the same noun, use a comma between them if they can be joined by the word and.
Use an before words that sound like they begin with vowels (everlasting, L&G).
Use a before words that sound like they begin with consonants (last, unicorn).
5) Adverbs
Adverb - modifies verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, prepositional phrases, conjunctions, clauses, and sentences
Interrogative adverb - modifies verbs (when, where, why, how)
Conjunctive adverb - connects and modifies; there are two types: transitional adverb (however, moreover, therefore) and relative adverb (when, while, where)
Correlative adverb - adverb pairs (as/as, so/as, so/that, then/when, there/where)
Some words are both adjectives and adverbs (daily, likely, sickly, friendly).
Some adverbs have two forms (wide/widely, direct/directly, near/nearly, most/mostly, wrong/wrongly).
Hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, whence, hitherto, and henceforth are useful adverbs.
Avoid overusing very, actually, and really.
Farther is used for measurable distances, and further is used for figurative distances.
It's okay to begin a sentence with and or but, and it's okay to use the phrase cannot but.
6) Subjective Complements: Predicate Nominatives and Predicate Adjectives
Subjective complement - noun (predicate nominative) or adjective (predicate adjective) or the equivalent of either that completes a linking verb
Subjective complements can follow certain intransitive verbs and passive-voice forms of factitive verbs.
Factitive verb - makes someone something (elect, make, choose, appoint, designate)
Choose attributive adjectives carefully and avoid redundancy.
I feel good, I feel well, I am well, and I am good are all okay.
Although adverbs ending in ly and the adverb very are never hyphenated to their attributive adjectives, it can be helpful to connect other adverbs to their attributive adjectives, particularly when the adverb can be read mistakenly as an adjective.
If an attributive adjective is a noun modified by an adjective or another noun, use a hyphen to connect that word with the attributive adjective (elementary-school, long-term).
Compound modifiers are hyphenated (win-or-lose situation).
Less is singular; fewer is plural except in regards to time and money.
7) Possessives, Appositives, and Expletives
Possessive - noun or pronoun used to show various kinds of possession or belonging
Most singular possessive nouns end in 's, and most plural possessive nouns end in s'.
Possessive pronouns - my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs
The pronouns my, your, her, its, our, and their always precede the nouns they modify.
Absolute possessive pronouns - mine, yours, hers, ours, and theirs
Appositive - word, phrase, or clause that identifies or explains another word or other words in the same sentence
Restrictive appositive - necessary for identification; should be written without commas
Nonrestrictive appositive - unnecessary for identification; should be set off with commas
The pronouns myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves are both reflexive pronouns and intensifying pronouns.
As intensifying pronouns, they are appositives.
"I myself don't care much for the example I'm writing."
Expletive - word with a function but little or no meaning
The expletives as, or, such as, namely, and for example are used to introduce appositives.
Colons can be used to introduce lists, but should not be used after the words for example, namely, that is, or any form of the verb to be.
The apostrophe can be used to show the person or thing to which someone or something belongs.
The 's is used to form the plural forms of lower-case letters and abbreviations requiring periods.
The apostrophe is used to replace missing letters or numerals.
To form the possessive of most singular nouns, add 's, even to proper nouns ending in s.
Ancient names such as Ramses and Moses tend to form the possessive by adding only an apostrophe.
In general, if a possessive is pronounced without a voiced s, use the apostrophe only.
If two or more people possess something jointly, put 's on the last name of the group only.
To form the possessive of plural nouns ending in s, add only an apostrophe. If the plural ends in a letter other than s, add an 's.
8) Prepositional Phrases
Preposition - a particle (a small, uninflected word) that shows a relationship between its object and other word or other words
When used in a sentence, a preposition must have an object; if it doesn't, then it is not a preposition.
Preposition objects can be nouns, pronouns, gerunds, gerund phrases, infinitives, infinitive phrases, noun clauses, and even prepositional phrases.
Most prepositional phrases are adjectival or adverbial.
Rule of parallelism - each element of a series should be of the same grammatical type (series of words, phrases, or clauses)
The object of a preposition is never the subject of a sentence.
In one of, one is a singular subject.
In any of, and a number of, any, and number are plural when they have plural references.
In the phrase the number of, number is usually singular.
It's fine to end a sentence with a preposition.
Phrasal verb - a verb-particle combination with an idiomatic meaning such that the meaning cannot be known from the separate meanings of the verb and the particle (put up with, try on)
Phrasal verbs do not have prepositions even though they use the same words.
Avoid piling up prepositions at the end of a sentence.
9) Indirect Objects and Objective Complements
Indirect object - tells to whom or for whom a direct object is given, said, or shown
An indirect object is not preceded by a preposition.
Object complement - noun or adjective or the equivalent that completes a verb with respect to a direct object
Often, sentences with object complements have factitive verbs.
Indirect objects come before direct objects.
Objective complements follow direct objects.
In addition to joining clauses with and or but, try sometimes to use a semicolon with words while, moreover, nevertheless, however, and although.
Avoid redundancy and ambiguity.
Logical Errors
Circular reasoning - the conclusion is presupposed in one of the premises
Begging the question - a premise is no more certain than the conclusion
Non sequitur - the conclusion does not follow from the premises
Post hoc ergo propter hoc - a conclusion based on the reasoning that if A follows B, B must be the cause of A
Undistributed middle - conclusion based on the unwarranted universalizing of a non-universal term in a premise
10) Adverbial Objectives, Retained Objects, and the Expletive "There"
Adverbial objectives - nouns and pronouns that function as adverbs
Adverbial objectives express time when, extent of time, location, destination, direction, quantity, etc.
Indirect objects are adverbial objectives.
When an active sentence has a direct object, the direct object becomes the subject of an equivalent sentence in the passive voice. When a sentence has an indirect object, the indirect subject, too, can be used as the subject of an equivalent sentence in the passive voice. When this happens, the direct object becomes a retained object.
Retained object - a direct object that continues to function as a direct object when the indirect object of a sentence in the active voice becomes the subject of a corresponding sentence in the passive voice
There can be an adverb or an expletive.
In the sentence, "There is little point in learning grammar this late in the game," there is an expletive and point is the subject of the sentence.
There are several transitive verbs that cannot be made passive.
Minimize your use of the passive voice by using it only when it is more effective than the active voice.
In other words, use the passive voice when the object of an action is more important than the doer of the action.
The passive voice is often desirable in scientific writing.
An author may want to conceal the identity of the doer of an action in order to create suspense.
Use a singular subject with there is and here is.
The adverb awhile cannot be the object of a preposition.
"We studied diagramming sentences for a while" and "We studied diagramming sentences awhile" are both correct.
11) Infinitives
Infinitive - the basic form of any verb, usually preceded by the word to
Infinitives do not have person and number, but they do have tense.
Transitive infinitives have voice.
present active - to love
present passive - to be loved
present-perfect active - to have loved
present perfect passive - to have been loved
present progressive - to be loving
past progressive - to have been loving
Infinitive phrase - infinitive with its modifiers and objects
Infinitives and infinitive phrases can function as adverbs, adjectives, and nouns.
They can be subjects, direct objects, predicate nominatives, appositives, prepositional objects, and objective complements.
Split infinitive - infinitive with a word or words between the particle to and the remainder of the infinitive; the extraneous word or words must come immediately after to
It is best to avoid split infinitives, but occasionally, after to is the best place for the adverb.
Split infinitives that contain more than one word between to and the verb should not be used.
12) Infinitives (2)
Complementary infinitive - infinitive used to complete certain modal-like verbs
Infinitives and infinitive phrases can function as predicate adjectives.
The infinitives may be preceded by forms of the verb to be, but they can also follow other linking verbs such as seem, and appear.
The particle for can be used as an expletive to introduce an infinitive phrase as a subject, a direct object, a predicate nominative, or an appositive. These infinitive phrases have their own subjects.
Infinitive phrases can also be used as the object of the preposition for.
Infinitives and infinitive phrases can be used as independent expressions.
"To be honest, George isn't keeping up with my grammar notes, and I'm halfway through the book."
Dangling infinitive - infinitive or infinitive phrase that when functioning as a modifier of the verb has no subject
Dangling infinitives are errors.
Sometimes it is necessary to use in order to in place of to.
Use infinitives and infinitive phrases as nouns (subjects, direct objects, objective complements, predicate nominatives, appositives), adjectives (attributive adjectives, predicate adjectives), adverbs (modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs), and complementary infinitives.
Use
try to instead of
try and.
